Answer these questions with about 220 words each provide one reference per question.
1) In the social sciences, establishing causation is extraordinarily difficult. Often, however, there’s an assumption that when two variables appear to together, they are causally related. Take, for instance, the following: In 2017, President Trump signed into law his signature Cuts and Jobs Act. In 2018, the U.S. experienced nearly 3% growth in gross domestic product (GDP). Are the legislation and economic growth causally related? Explain. What must a researcher do to establish causation?
2) A classical randomized experiment (CRE) is the “gold standard” for establishing causal linkages between variables. If CREs are the “gold standard,” why don’t social scientists always employ them to investigate social inquiries? What are the limitations of CREs? What are the ethical concerns?
3) You have been asked to determine whether Arizona voters would be receptive to enacting National Popular Vote legislation. The legislation would require Arizona to commit its Electoral College votes to whichever candidate receives the greatest share of the popular votes nationally in a presidential general election. Discuss the following:
a) Define the population under investigation.
b) Define the sample you would construct. What kind of sample? How large? Drawn from where?
c) Identify any challenges you would expect to encounter.
4) Highlight the principal differences between probability and nonprobability samples. Under which circumstances might it be advantageous to employ nonprobability samples? Explain, and give an example of a nonprobability sample. Be sure to consider the implications of reach sample type for inferential analysis.
5) Assume that you have been asked to lead a team of researchers to study the effects of accelerated deforestation on the native peoples of the Amazon. With very little prior Western knowledge about the populations under study, how would you begin to design a research project to assess the effects of development? Which qualitative method would you use? Explain.
6) Describe the difference between overt and covert observation. Explain whether covert observation may present ethical concerns. What are the implications for validity of overt and covert observation?
7) Define descriptive statistics. What do measures of central tendency tell a researcher about a distribution? Why do researchers bother to calculate measures of central tendency? Explain.
8) A second class of descriptive statistics include measures of dispersion. What do measures of dispersion tell a researcher about a distribution? Why do researchers bother to calculate measures of dispersion? Explain.
9) The strength of research reports hinges largely on the presentation and interpretation of data. See the table below. Is the presentation effective? How would you rearrange the data? Is there an appropriate title and reference? Is the presentation of data consistent? Can you identify any typos that may inhibit comprehension? Recreate the data table, with all of the appropriate components. Post it in your response, with a brief explanation of the changes undertaken.
Link to data: https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml?src=bkmk
10) Presentations of data (e.g., tabular, graphical) are not self-explanatory. It is incumbent upon the researcher to interpret what is shown. Referring to the table below, give a plausible interpretation of what the researcher/analyst is trying to tell the audience with the data. Do there, for instance, appear to be differences by region? Differences by Republican and Democratic states? Any other identifiable patterns of potential interest? Might such patterns indicate any causal factors, such as a potential link between rural and urban states when it comes to educational achievement, as opposed to other patterns such as the political identification of the various states? Is more research/data collection needed? Explain.
Table 1. Educational Attainment in Several U.S. States, Percentage of Population with a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 American Community Survey. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml?src=bkmk